COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
October 18, 2011
Computer engineering, also called computer systems engineering, is a discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer systems.[1] Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering, software design, and hardware-software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design. This field of engineering not only focuses on how computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the larger picture.[2]
Usual tasks involving computer engineers include writing software and firmware for embedded microcontrollers, designing VLSI chips, designing analog sensors, designing mixed signal circuit boards, and designing operating systems. Computer engineers are also suited for robotics research, which relies heavily on using digital systems to control and monitor electrical systems like motors, communications, and sensors.
The first accredited computer engineering degree program in the United States was established at Case Western Reserve University in 1971. As of October 2004[update], there were 170 ABET-accredited computer engineering programs in the US.[3] Due to increasing job requirements for engineers, who can concurrently design hardware, software, firmware, and manage all forms of computer systems used in industry, some tertiary institutions around the world offer a bachelor’s degree generally called computer engineering. Both computer engineering and electronic engineering programs include analog and digital circuit design in their curricular. As with most engineering disciplines, having a sound knowledge of mathematics and sciences is necessary for computer engineers.
In many institutions, computer engineering students are allowed to choose areas of in-depth study in their junior and senior year, because the full breadth of knowledge used in the design and application of computers is beyond the scope of an undergraduate degree. Other institutions may require engineering students to complete one year of General Engineering before declaring computer engineering as their primary focus
The early foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks, such as the abacus, have existed since antiquity. Wilhelm Schickard designed the first mechanical calculator in 1623, but did not complete its construction.[4] Blaise Pascal designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator, the Pascaline, in 1642. Charles Babbage designed a difference engine and then a general-purpose Analytical Engine in Victorian times,[5] for which Ada Lovelace wrote a manual. Because of this work she is regarded today as the world’s first programmer.[6] Around 1900, punched card machines were introduced.
During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors.[7] As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.[8][9] The world’s first computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science, began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The first computer science degree program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962.[10] Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own right.
Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population.[11] It is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. “Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating…if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again”.[11] During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.
Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computer science technology. Modern society has seen a significant shift from computers being used solely by experts or professionals to a more widespread user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and for their most-effective use, some degree of human aid was needed, in part by professional computer operators. However, as computers became widespread and far more affordable, less human assistance was needed, although residues of the original assistance still remained.
Major achievements
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The German military used the Enigma machine (shown here) during World War II for communication they thought to be secret. The large-scale decryption of Enigma traffic at Bletchley Park was an important factor that contributed to Allied victory in WWII.[12]
Despite its short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society. These include:
- The start of the “digital revolution,” which includes the current Information Age and the Internet.[13]
- A formal definition of computation and computability, and proof that there are computationally unsolvable and intractable problems.[14]
- The concept of a programming language, a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction.[15]
- In cryptography, breaking the Enigma machine was an important factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II.[12]
- Scientific computing enabled practical evaluation of processes and situations of great complexity, as well as experimentation entirely by software. It also enabled advanced study of the mind, and mapping of the human genome became possible with the Human Genome Project.[13] Distributed computing projects such as Folding@home explore protein folding.
- Algorithmic trading has increased the efficiency and liquidity of financial markets by using artificial intelligence, machine learning, and other statistical and numerical techniques on a large scale.[16]
- Image synthesis, including video by computing individual video frames.[citation needed]
- Human language processing, including practical speech-to-text conversion and automated translation of languages[citation needed]
- Simulation of various processes, including computational fluid dynamics, physical, electrical, and electronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats, among many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are SPICE as well as software for physical realization of new (or modified) designs. The latter includes essential design software for integrated circuits.[citation needed]
Philosophy
Main article: Philosophy of computer science
Following Peter Wegner, Amnon H. Eden proposes that there are three paradigms at work in various areas of computer science:[17]
- a “rationalist paradigm”, which treats computer science as branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs deductive reasoning,
- a “technocratic paradigm”, readily identifiable with engineering approaches, most prominent in software engineering, and
- a “scientific paradigm”, which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of natural sciences, and identifiable in some branches of artificial intelligence (the study of artificial life for instance).
Areas of computer science
Main article: List of computer science fields
As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.[18][19] CSAB, formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board – which is made up of representatives of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), and the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS)[20] – identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science.[18]
Theoretical computer science
Main article: Theoretical computer science
The broader field of theoretical computer science encompasses both the classical theory of computation and a wide range of other topics that focus on the more abstract, logical, and mathematical aspects of computing.
Theory of computation
Main article: Theory of computation
According to Peter J. Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, “What can be (efficiently) automated?”[8] The study of the theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, computability theory examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation. The second question is addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational problems.
The famous “P=NP?” problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems,[21] is an open problem in the theory of computation.
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| Automata theory | Computability theory | Computational complexity theory | Cryptography | Quantum computing theory |
Information and coding theory
Main articles: Information theory and Coding theory
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Information theory is related to the quantification of information.This was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data. Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error-correction and more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods.
Algorithms and data structures
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| Analysis of algorithms | Algorithms | Data structures | Computational geometry |
Programming language theory
Main article: Programming language theory
Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and their individual features. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software engineering and linguistics. It is a well-recognized branch of computer science, and an active research area, with results published in numerous journals dedicated to PLT, as well as in general computer science and engineering publications.
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| Type theory | Compiler design | Programming languages |
Formal methods
Main article: Formal methods
Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically-based techniques for the specification, development and verification of software and hardware systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of high-integrity systems, where safety or security is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages, automata theory, and program semantics, but also type systems and algebraic data types to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.
Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems
Main articles: Concurrency (computer science) and Distributed computing
Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including Petri nets, process calculi and the Parallel Random Access Machine model. A distributed system extends the idea of concurrency onto multiple computers connected through a network. Computers within the same distributed system have their own private memory, and information is often exchanged amongst themselves to achieve a common goal.
Databases and information retrieval
Main articles: Database and Database management systems
A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and search data, through database models and query languages.
Applied computer science
Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed. Certain departments of major universities prefer the term computing science, to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy, to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the Communications of the ACM – turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied epistemologist.[22] Three months later in the same journal, comptologist was suggested, followed next year by hypologist.[23] The term computics has also been suggested.[24] In continental Europe, terms derived from “information” and “automatic” are often used, e.g. informatique (French), Informatik (German), Informatica (Spain, Italy) or informatika (Slavic languages) are also used.[citation needed]
Renowned computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra once stated: “Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes.”[25] The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information technology or information systems. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research also often intersects other disciplines, such as philosophy, cognitive science, linguistics, mathematics, physics, statistics, and logic.
Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is a mathematical science.[8] Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra.
The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term “software engineering” means, and how computer science is defined. David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.[26]
The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with computational science. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.
Artificial intelligence
Main article: Artificial intelligence
This branch of computer science aims to synthesise goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning and communication which are found in humans and animals. From its origins in cybernetics and in the Dartmouth Conference (1956), artificial intelligence (AI) research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as applied mathematics, symbolic logic, semiotics, electrical engineering, philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social intelligence. AI is associated in the popular mind with robotic development, but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of software development which require computational understanding and modeling such as finance and economics, data mining and the physical sciences. The starting-point in the late 1940s was Alan Turing‘s question “Can computers think?”, and the question remains effectively unanswered although the “Turing Test” is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.
Computer architecture and engineering
Main articles: Computer architecture and Computer engineering
Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory. The field often involves disciplines of computer engineering and electrical engineering, selecting and interconnection hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance, and cost goals
Computer graphics and visualization
Main article: Computer graphics (computer science)
Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents, and involves syntheses and manipulations of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in computer science, including computer vision, image processing, and computational geometry, and are heavily applied in the fields of special effects and video games.
Computer security and cryptography
Main articles: Computer security and Cryptography
Computer security is a branch of computer technology, whose objective includes protection of information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users. Cryptography is the practice and study of hiding (encryption) and therefore deciphering (decryption) information. Modern cryptography is largely related to computer science, for many encryption and decryption algorithms are based on their computational complexity.
Computational science
Computational science (or scientific computing) is the field of study concerned with constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using computers to analyze and solve scientific problems. In practical use, it is typically the application of computer simulation and other forms of computation to problems in various scientific disciplines.
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| Numerical analysis | Computational physics | Computational chemistry | Bioinformatics |
Software engineering
Main article: Software engineering
Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software.
Software engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing software to get the best out of them. it does not just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software but the internal maintenance and arrangement.
Education
Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the theory of computation, analysis of algorithms, formal methods, concurrency theory, databases, computer graphics, and systems analysis, among others. They typically also teach computer programming, but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study.
Other colleges and universities, as well as secondary schools and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced programming rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The process aspects of computer programming are often referred to as software engineering.
Yet while computer science professions increasingly drive the U.S. economy, computer science education is absent in most American K-12 curricula. A report entitled “Running on Empty: The Failure to Teach K-12 Computer Science in the Digital Age” was released in October 2010 by Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA), and revealed that only 14 states have adopted significant education standards for high school computer science. The report also found that only nine states count high school computer science courses as a core academic subject in their graduation requirements. In tandem with “Running on Empty,” a new, non-partisan advocacy coalition–Computing in the Core (CinC)–was founded to influence federal and state policy, such as the Computer Science Education Act, which calls for grants to states to develop plans for improving computer science education and supporting computer science teachers.
Corruption….
October 18, 2011
Corruption-a dishonest or immoral or illegal behavior of a person is something that can never be justified in the light and basic principles of the Bible. It is an act totally an becoming of a Christian. Money-as a measure of value; means of storing wealth; and ,as a medium of economic exchange is one of the greatest achievement of humanity. It greatly facilitates trade with its high liquidity. As good and useful it may so be, it also greatly suit the inclinations of the corrupted. Wars, more or less, were fought with money behind the scene and in the process rendering countless number of people homeless, deformed, widows and orphans. It has had brought down and raised many a kings and government. Global economic downturns or recession are mainly due to the corrupt nature of the world market in general and the individual players(CEO’s)in particular. In recent years the Wall Street has become more of a channel for denying people of their hard earn money. The recently concluded Indian Premier League (IPL) was nicknamed by many as ‘League of Scandals’ greatly dented the image of the game of cricket. Our world is pervaded by corruption. Corruption is not something new but was and is and will continue to be a challenge. Balaam, who try to combine prophecy, the service of God with the wages of iniquity/corruption was entailed by destruction. Judas made his final decision to betray Jesus was under the influence of money. The medieval papal ecclesiastical organisation because of its corrupt and immoral disposition make the Reformation a certainty. The big question for us is-how do we face this challenge? We are not beyond its reach. We have read the lives of Abraham, Moses, Danial, Paul, Timothy, Stephen and the likes who shone brightly for Christ and His mission. We are called by the very same God and are given the same Holy Spirit given to the aforementioned persons to live our lives like theirs-playing our role as part of the body of Christ. Corruption has no place in the lives of Christians or in the church administration as well. All for the grace of God let us not behave like Balaam who tempts the Lord as if He might change his purpose, and allow him to earn the wages of iniquity/corruption; Kaiaphas who chose the glory of this world rather than the Son of God; or, Judas(one among the 12 disciples)who sold Jesus for a paltry 30 pieces of silver(his bait to sin).Corruption is one of the greatest wrongs that a person can commit especially if it involves the church money, which is offered to God by His people out of love and duty. Even a single paise misspend out of the church coffer tantamount to robbing/stealing from God. Dear yoke fellow in Christ you have been freed from sin (Romans 6:6; 8:2) now it is up to you to live that life out given to you by Christ upon His death on the cross. We are member of God’s household (Ephesians 2:19). As such we are urge to live a live worthy of the calling we received in Christ (Ephesian 4:1) The question is how will I be sanctified to be saved? Instead the question given to you by God in Christ is-as you have been sanctified in Christ my Son how would you like to act out your part in that life of yours? God lovingly calls us to glorify His name and be a blessing to everything, yes everything, we do. 
CHETAN BHAGAT-A WRITER WHO CONNECTS
October 18, 2011
Chetan Bhagat has found remarkable success in the literary field with his novels. Here’s a look at his life and success.
Chetan Bhagat broke into the mainstream literary scene with his novel Five Point Someone. His novels mainly impressed laymen rather than critics, due to their Bollywood style plots and their fun quotient. Chetan himself maintains that his novels are not for serious reading. His target audience includes students and the great Indian middle class.
Chetan Bhagat
Chetan Bhagat’s Life Story – His Initial Days
Chetan Bhagat was born in 1974, on the 22nd of April, to Punjabi parents in the city of New Delhi. His Dad served in the army while his mom worked in a government position. She worked in the agricultural department. Chetan has a younger brother too, called Ketan Bhagat. Ketan is an Oracle employee who resides in Mumbai.
Chetan Bhagat life and success.
Chetan did his initial schooling in Army Public School in Dhaula Kuan. Once he was done with his schooling, he joined the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi as a mechanical engineering student. He pursued a course in the Indian Institute of Management shortly after his IIT stint and met his girlfriend and wife Anusha in the institute.
Chetan Bhagat’s Life Story – His Relationship With Anusha
Chetan met Anusha Suryanarayan in IIM Ahmedabad, and the two got into a relationship soon after their initial days. Chetan and Anusha are quite open about their relationship and how they ended up getting married despite opposition from both families. Chetan’s book Two States is primarily based on his relationship with Anusha, as the book is centered on a couple in IIM Ahmedabad where the boy and girl are from different cultural backgrounds (Chetan is a Punjabi while Anusha is a Tamilian).
Chetan Bhagat’s Life Story
Chetan Bhagat’s Life Story – Wedding, Kids and Success
Chetan and Anusha tied the knot in the year 1998, and Anusha gave birth to twins Ishaan and Shyam in 2005. Chetan’s first novel Five Point Someone, which released in 2004, was a bestseller and a strong favorite among the younger crowd.
He quit his job in Hong Kong and shifted to Mumbai, and found further success with the novels One Night @ the Call Center (2005), 2 States:
The Story of My Marriage (2009) and The 3 Mistakes of My Life (2008). Bhagat took on the role of a motivational speaker towards the later stages of his popularity and started writing columns in dailies like The Times of India.
Chetan Bhagat was named in Time’s list of 100 Most Influential People in the World.
Sushmita's world 